A widely accepted belief across India is that the nation's freedom struggle began with the arrival of Mahatma Gandhi in 1914–15 and culminated on August 15, 1947, under his leadership, earning him the title of the "Father of the Nation." However, this narrative has been contested by several historians and revolutionaries who argue that the Indian independence movement was alive and evolving much before Gandhi's arrival. Far from being the lone architect of freedom, Gandhiji's leadership coincided with India's fragmentation and continued suffering.
A Historical Continuity of Resistance
India's fight against British imperialism did not begin with Gandhi. After the fall of the Maratha Empire in 1818 and the Sikh Empire in 1848, India witnessed the 1857 uprising—a massive rebellion that nearly shook British rule to its core. Veer Savarkar has thoroughly chronicled this freedom movement in his book The First War of Independence – 1857. Following this, the Indian National Congress was established in 1885, marking a transition from constitutional protests to more militant methods, notably exemplified by Khudiram Bose's bomb attack in 1906.
The Revolutionary Movement Before Gandhi
By the time Gandhi returned to India in 1915, the revolutionary spirit had already taken deep root across Bengal, Maharashtra, and Punjab. Figures like Subhas Chandra Bose and other revolutionaries helped sustain this parallel movement despite Gandhi's increasing prominence. While Gandhi emphasized truth and non-violence, it was the contribution of these revolutionaries that ensured the freedom movement stayed alive and dynamic.
Constitutional Developments and Gandhi's Opposition
Several constitutional reforms predated Gandhi's leadership:
- The Indian Councils Act of 1892 allowed limited Indian participation in legislative councils.
- The Morley-Minto Reforms of 1909 introduced elected representatives in Indian legislatures.
- The Montague-Chelmsford Reforms of 1919 brought partial provincial autonomy.
- The Government of India Act of 1935 provided full provincial autonomy and partial central responsibility.
Ironically, Gandhi had no respect for legislative institutions and often labeled them “prostitutes,” advocating their boycott. Nonetheless, constitutional progress up to 1935 occurred in parallel with the work of moderate leaders and revolutionaries—progress Gandhi opposed or downplayed.
Revolutionaries and Armed Struggle
The Gadar Party, the Komagata Maru incident, and the revolutionary activities described in the Rowlatt Report indicate the intensity of the armed resistance in India well before Gandhi's mainstream involvement. Heroes such as Bhagat Singh , Rajguru, Sukhdev, and Chandra Shekhar Azad sacrificed their lives, believing that a foreign ruler deserved to be overthrown by force. While Gandhi consistently condemned their actions, public sentiment largely supported these youth as martyrs of the national cause.
Bhagat Singh's Legacy and Gandhi's Opposition
At the 1931 Karachi Congress session, a resolution admiring Bhagat Singh's courage was passed despite Gandhi's opposition. Later, when an attempt was made on the Acting Governor's Life by Gogate, Gandhi blamed this act on the Congress's earlier admiration for Bhagat Singh. Subhas Chandra Bose immediately challenged Gandhi's accusation, leading to his gradual exclusion from the Gandhi-led leadership structure.
The Suppression of Subhas Chandra Bose
Gandhi's antagonism towards differing ideologies extended to Subhas Chandra Bose, whose popularity far surpassed that of many Congress leaders. Bose's election as Congress President at Haripura and again at Tripura, despite Gandhi's opposition and support for Dr. Pattabhi Sitaramayya, demonstrated Bose's mass appeal. Gandhi, however, viewed Bose's victory as his defeat, leading to a rift that resulted in Bose's ouster from the party.
The Quit India Movement: Between Non-Violence and Chaos
Launched on August 8, 1942, the Quit India Movement was swiftly suppressed by British authorities. While intended as a non-violent struggle, the campaign saw widespread acts of violence, sabotage, and arson, including the destruction of nearly 900 railway stations. Gandhi's call to "Do or Die" was interpreted as permission for more aggressive resistance. The movement's violent character contrasted starkly with Gandhi's non-violence doctrine, exposing a deep disconnect between his ideals and ground realities.
The INA and Subhas Chandra Bose's Final Campaign
Meanwhile, Subhas Chandra Bose had escaped from India in 1941 and eventually reached Japan via Germany. With Japanese support, he organized the Indian National Army (INA) and launched a campaign to liberate India. In 1944, the INA entered Manipur and parts of Assam. Despite limited resources, the INA displayed immense courage, loyalty, and nationalistic fervor under the leadership of Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose.
Though the campaign ultimately failed, Bose's efforts made him a national hero. Had he returned alive in 1945, he could have become India's most beloved leader. Ironically, after his death, the Congress superficially embraced his legacy, adopting "Jai Hind" as a slogan and utilizing the INA trials in their election campaigns, despite their previous indifference to his efforts.
The Muslim League, Partition, and Gandhi's Failure
As the Muslim League intensified its campaign for Pakistan through communal violence and anti-Hindu massacres, Gandhi and the Congress chose a policy of appeasement. British leaders like Lord Wavell and Lord Mountbatten stood by passively. Gandhi's concessions to the Muslim League ultimately backfired, leading to the Partition of India, the loss of one-third of Indian territory, and the creation of a hostile neighbor, Pakistan.
Three Real Forces Behind British Withdrawal
Contrary to popular belief, the actual reasons behind the British withdrawal were:
- The Revolutionary Movements (1857–1942): Armed resistance, including Bose's INA and the 1942 rebellion, spread revolutionary consciousness even within the Indian military forces. These efforts consistently undermined British authority, despite Gandhi's opposition to them.
- Constitutional Nationalists: Leaders like Lokmanya Tilak, C.R. Das, N.C. Kelkar, Vithalbhai Patel, and Hindu Mahasabha leaders made progress through legal means. Their sacrifices and legislative efforts gradually pushed the British toward reform.
- British Economic Collapse Post-WWII: The economic devastation of World War II, combined with the fall of Winston Churchill and the rise of the Labour Party in Britain, made colonial maintenance untenable. Britain's financial bankruptcy was a decisive factor in relinquishing control over India.
Gandhism: An Ideology That Fell Short
Gandhi's methods—non-violence, the charkha (spinning wheel), and satyagraha were romanticized but largely impractical. After 34 years of promotion, the charkha failed to clothe even one percent of the nation. Non-violence collapsed during the Quit India Movement. And truth, as practiced in politics, was often mere pretension.
Conclusion: Rethinking the Narrative of Independence
While Gandhi was undoubtedly a sincere patriot, his leadership often hindered rather than advanced the cause of Indian freedom. His rejection of revolutionary strategies and constitutional pragmatism alienated powerful contributors like Subhas Chandra Bose. It is a disservice to history to credit Gandhi alone for India's independence. True credit belongs to the collective efforts of armed revolutionaries, constitutional reformers, and the geopolitical realities of post-war Britain.
The real architect of modern India's liberation was Subhas Chandra Bose, a leader who believed in the necessity of force, sacrifice, and unwavering commitment to national sovereignty.